Soils and Vegetation of India

Soils and Natural Vegetation of India

Introduction to Indian Soils

India has an extraordinary diversity of soils, reflecting the enormous variation in parent rock material, climate, topography, biological activity, and geological history across the subcontinent. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) classifies Indian soils into eight major types: alluvial soils, black soils (regur), red and yellow soils, laterite soils, arid and desert soils, saline and alkaline soils, peaty and marshy soils, and forest and mountain soils. These soil types are the product of millions of years of weathering, erosion, deposition, and biological processes acting on the diverse parent materials of the Indian subcontinent, from the ancient Archaean gneisses of the Peninsular Shield to the young Himalayan sedimentary rocks and the Deccan basalts.

Alluvial Soils

Alluvial soils are the most extensive and agriculturally significant soils of India, covering approximately 43 percent of the total land area and forming the great Indo-Gangetic plain, the Brahmaputra valley, the coastal plains, and the river deltas. They are formed by the deposition of material carried by rivers originating in the Himalayas (Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra systems) and the peninsular rivers (Krishna, Godavari, Mahanadi, Cauvery). Alluvial soils vary in texture from sandy loam to clayey loam and are generally rich in potash but deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus, and humus. They support the most intensive and productive agriculture in India, including wheat, rice, sugarcane, cotton, oilseeds, and pulses.

Alluvial soils are divided into two subtypes based on age. Khadar is new alluvium, deposited by annual floods in the active floodplains of rivers, lighter in colour, more sandy, and very fertile due to annual replenishment of nutrients. Bangar is old alluvium found on higher ground above the floodplain, darker in colour, more clayey, and contains calcium carbonate nodules called kankar. The Bhabhar belt along the Himalayan foothills consists of coarse, highly porous alluvial deposits of boulders and gravels where rivers lose themselves underground on emerging from the mountains; this belt is unsuitable for cultivation. The Terai belt lies south of Bhabhar, where underground water resurfaces as springs and swamps, creating marshy, ill-drained, fertile land supporting dense forest and rich biodiversity (Terai National Parks: Jim Corbett on the Ramganga, Dudhwa on the Sharda, Valmiki on the Gandak, Kaziranga and Manas in Assam). The original Terai has been extensively reclaimed for agriculture, particularly sugarcane and rice cultivation in northwestern UP and Uttarakhand, while remnant natural Terai survives only within protected areas and northeastern India.

In coastal plains and river deltas, alluvial soils support highly productive agriculture. The Krishna-Godavari delta, Mahanadi delta, Cauvery delta, and the Bengal delta (Sundarbans) have extremely fertile alluvial soils. The coastal alluvial soils of Kerala and Tamil Nadu differ in being more influenced by marine deposits and laterisation.

Black Soils (Regur / Cotton Soils)

Black soils, known as regur (from the Telugu word for cotton soil) or Deccan trap soils, cover approximately 16 percent of India's total area, concentrated across the Deccan Plateau: Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and parts of Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan. They are formed by the weathering of Deccan basalt (trap rock), which gives them their characteristic dark to black colour due to the presence of titaniferous magnetite and iron compounds. The parent material of Deccan basalt was deposited by massive volcanic eruptions during the Cretaceous period, forming the Deccan lava plateau; subsequent weathering over millions of years converted the basalt into the deep black regur soils.

The most distinctive characteristic of black soils is their high moisture retention capacity: they swell when wet and shrink when dry, developing wide and deep cracks in summer. These cracks allow air penetration and self-ploughing (the soil turns itself over as it cracks and refills), which is why black soils were traditionally cultivated without irrigation. Black soils are rich in calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, potash, and lime, making them highly fertile. However, they are deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic matter. Their fine clayey texture makes them sticky and difficult to work when wet and hard when dry, limiting mechanisation. Black soils are ideal for cotton cultivation (hence cotton soil), and also support jowar, wheat, linseed, tobacco, sugarcane, and oilseeds. The Vidarbha region of Maharashtra, the northern Karnataka plateau, and parts of Madhya Pradesh have the deepest and most fertile black soils.

Red and Yellow Soils

Red and yellow soils cover approximately 18.5 percent of India, found across the Deccan plateau (non-trap areas), eastern and southern Rajasthan, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, southern Bihar, parts of Jharkhand, and the hilly tracts of the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. They form by the weathering of ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks (Archaean gneisses and schists) of the Peninsular Shield under conditions of moderate to low rainfall. The red colour comes from the diffusion of iron oxide (ferric oxide) through the soil mass, giving it a reddish appearance when dry. In hydrated form, the iron oxide gives a yellow hue, hence the name red and yellow soils. Red soils are generally poor in nitrogen, phosphorus, potash, organic matter, calcium, and magnesium, and require substantial fertiliser application for productive agriculture. They are light-textured, porous, and friable, with lower moisture retention than black soils. With irrigation and fertilisers, red soils can support groundnut, potatoes, wheat, rice, cotton, tobacco, and oilseeds. The Chhota Nagpur plateau red soils support extensive forest cover and tribal communities. Red soils also occur along river valleys in peninsular India wherever ancient crystalline rocks are exposed.

Laterite Soils

Laterite soils cover approximately 2.5 percent of India, found in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu (especially the Eastern Ghats), Meghalaya, the Malabar coast, parts of Maharashtra, Odisha, Jharkhand, and Assam. The name laterite comes from the Latin word later meaning brick, as laterite hardens into bricklike blocks on exposure to air and has historically been used as building material (many temples of Kerala and medieval structures of South India are built of laterite). Laterite soils form in regions of high rainfall (over 200 cm annually) and high temperature through intense leaching: heavy rainfall dissolves and removes silica and carbonates, leaving behind insoluble residues of aluminium and iron oxides (bauxite and limonite), which accumulate to form the hard laterite crust. Laterites are therefore characterised by extreme acidity, very low fertility (poor in nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, potassium, and organic matter), and high iron and aluminium content. They are not suitable for agriculture without heavy liming and fertilisation. However, certain crops like tea, coffee, rubber, coconut, and cashew can grow in laterite soils with acidic conditions. Laterisation is intensified on the windward western slopes of the Western Ghats and in the high-rainfall northeast.

Arid and Desert Soils

Arid and desert soils occur in western Rajasthan, parts of Gujarat (Rann of Kutch), and Ladakh, covering approximately 4.4 percent of India's area. These soils form under hyper-arid conditions (rainfall less than 150 mm annually) where physical weathering dominates, chemical weathering is minimal, and biological activity is very low. They are sandy to gravelly, light-coloured (pale brown to reddish), extremely porous, and deficient in moisture, nitrogen, and organic matter. Soluble salts are not leached away due to minimal rainfall, so arid soils often have a hard calcium carbonate (kankar) layer at shallow depth, which restricts root penetration. Despite low inherent fertility, arid soils can be made productive with assured irrigation: the Indira Gandhi Canal (Rajasthan Canal) has transformed significant areas of Rajasthan's Thar Desert into agricultural land supporting wheat, mustard, and cotton. However, waterlogging and secondary salinisation due to inadequate drainage are major problems in irrigated arid tracts.

Saline and Alkaline Soils

Saline soils (reh, usar, thur, kallar, chopan) occur in areas of insufficient drainage, high evaporation, and accumulation of soluble salts, particularly sodium chloride and sodium sulphate. They are found in dry parts of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and the Rann of Kutch. Alkaline soils (or sodic soils) have high sodium carbonate and bicarbonate content, producing a strongly alkaline reaction (pH above 8.5). Both saline and alkaline soils are infertile and difficult to reclaim. Salinisation is a major problem in irrigated areas across the Indo-Gangetic plain where waterlogging causes capillary rise of saline groundwater. Approximately 20 percent of India's irrigated area is affected by waterlogging, salinisation, or alkalinity. Reclamation methods include provision of drainage, leaching with excess water to flush salts, application of gypsum to replace sodium with calcium, and cultivation of salt-tolerant crops.

Peaty and Marshy Soils

Peaty soils occur in areas of high rainfall and humidity where organic matter accumulates faster than it decomposes, found in the coastal tracts of Kerala (Kuttanad, the rice bowl below sea level), the Sundarbans of West Bengal, coastal Odisha and Tamil Nadu, and parts of Uttarakhand and Bihar. They are characteristically dark coloured, heavy, and highly acidic, with very high organic matter content (up to 40 to 50 percent) but low mineral nutrients. Peaty soils support limited agriculture but are ecologically important as carbon sinks and freshwater ecosystems.

Forest and Mountain Soils

Forest and mountain soils occur in the Himalayan region, the Western Ghats, the Eastern Ghats, and other hilly areas, covering approximately 8 percent of India. They vary enormously depending on altitude, parent rock, slope, and vegetation cover. In the lower Himalayan foothills and lower slopes (1,000 to 2,000 m), soils are loamy and silty with moderate organic matter. At higher elevations (2,000 to 3,000 m), soils become more acidic, sandy, with increasing humus content under coniferous forests. Above the tree line (above 3,500 m), soils are thin, skeletal, poorly developed, and subject to cryogenic processes (freeze-thaw cycles). In the Western Ghats, forest soils are laterised due to high rainfall. Mountain soils support important crops like apple, pear, plum, walnut, and saffron in temperate zones, and tea in the Darjeeling and Nilgiri highlands.

Soil Erosion and Conservation in India

India loses enormous quantities of fertile topsoil annually to water and wind erosion. The major forms of water erosion are sheet erosion (uniform removal of a thin layer of soil over large areas), rill erosion (formation of small channels), gully erosion (formation of deep ravines particularly in Chambal valley, Rajasthan, UP, and MP, creating badlands known as chambal ravines covering over 3 million hectares), and stream bank erosion. Wind erosion is severe in the arid and semi-arid zones of Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Haryana. Human causes of accelerated soil erosion include deforestation, overgrazing, shifting cultivation (jhum in northeast India), unscientific irrigation practices leading to waterlogging and salinisation, mining, and construction. Soil conservation measures include contour bunding, terracing of hillslopes, check dams, grass waterways, windbreaks and shelter belts (agroforestry), afforestation, management of grazing pressure, banning of jhum cultivation and its replacement with settled agriculture or horticulture, and the National Watershed Development Programme. The National Action Plan for Climate Change (NAPCC) includes the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture addressing soil health, and the Soil Health Card scheme launched in 2015 provides farmers with information on nutrient status of their soil and recommendations for fertiliser application.

Natural Vegetation of India: Classification

India is one of the world's seventeen megadiverse countries (as identified by Conservation International in 1998), with approximately 45,000 species of plants and 91,000 species of animals recorded. The natural vegetation of India is classified into five major types based on climate (especially rainfall and temperature), soil, and altitude: tropical evergreen forests, tropical deciduous forests, tropical thorn forests and scrub, mangrove (tidal) forests, and mountain forests (montane vegetation).

Tropical Evergreen Forests

Tropical evergreen forests occur in areas receiving more than 200 cm of rainfall annually, found in the Western Ghats (especially the windward slopes of Kerala, Karnataka, and Goa), the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the northeastern states (Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland, Assam). These are hardwood forests of extreme density, with trees reaching 45 to 60 metres in height. They are characterised by a multi-layered canopy structure: the emergent layer of the tallest trees forming a closed canopy that blocks most sunlight, an intermediate layer beneath, and a ground layer of climbers (lianas), epiphytes (orchids, found abundantly in Arunachal Pradesh), and shade-tolerant plants. Different species can coexist in great diversity, making commercial exploitation difficult because trees of the same species are widely dispersed. Tropical evergreen forests are the world's largest natural carbon sinks and biodiversity reservoirs. Important species include rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia), ebony (Diospyros ebenum), mahogany, ironwood, and various species of figs. Commercially valuable species like pepper (Kerala, the king of spices), cardamom, ginger, and other spices are found in evergreen forest ecosystems. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands have unique tropical evergreen forests with high endemism including padauk, gurjan, and andaman redwood. If original evergreen forest is destroyed, secondary vegetation that grows back is far less diverse and luxuriant because heavy rainfall causes intense leaching of the soil, removing nutrients and reducing soil fertility.

Tropical Deciduous Forests

Tropical deciduous forests are the most widespread type of natural vegetation in India, found in areas receiving 70 to 200 cm of annual rainfall. They shed their leaves during the dry season (March to May) to reduce water loss, hence the name deciduous. They are divided into moist deciduous forests (100 to 200 cm rainfall) and dry deciduous forests (70 to 100 cm rainfall). Moist deciduous forests occur in the northeastern states, along the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, in the foothills of the Himalayas (Shiwalik), and in the Andaman Islands. Teak (Tectona grandis) is the most commercially valuable tree, found in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. Other important species include sal (Shorea robusta), shisham (Dalbergia sissoo), sandalwood (Karnataka, famous for aromatic wood and oil), khair (Acacia catechu, source of katha), and bamboo. Dry deciduous forests occur over the northern part of the peninsula in Rajasthan, UP, Bihar, and the plains of Punjab, where rainfall is between 70 and 100 cm. They are more open, with a well-developed grass layer, and many trees are thorny. Teak and sal are found in the wetter margins. Dry deciduous forests have been extensively cleared for agriculture and pasture. They support rich wildlife including tigers, leopards, elephants, gaur, and chital.

Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrub

Tropical thorn forests occur in areas with rainfall below 70 cm, found in the semi-arid and arid parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, and Punjab. Trees are stunted (rarely exceeding 6 to 10 metres), widely spaced, with thick bark, deep roots, small leathery or thorny leaves, and often leafless for extended dry periods (xerophytic adaptations). Important species include khejri (Prosopis cineraria, the state tree of Rajasthan, revered by the Bishnoi community for its protective role in the Chipko movement's predecessor, the Khejrali massacre), babool (Acacia nilotica), ber (Ziziphus mauritiana), neem, palas (Butea monosperma), and various cacti and euphorbia. Thorny grasslands intersperse with thorn scrub, supporting the Indian bustard (Rajasthan), chinkara, blackbuck, and desert fox. The Thar Desert in the most arid parts supports only sparse xerophytic vegetation, sand dunes, and ephemeral grasses that grow after rare rainfall events.

Mangrove (Tidal) Forests

Mangrove forests occur along tidal mudflats, estuaries, sheltered coasts, and deltas in areas receiving saltwater inundation. India has approximately 4,992 square kilometres of mangrove forest (India State of Forest Report 2023), about 0.15 percent of its geographical area. The Sundarbans of West Bengal and Bangladesh (shared between India and Bangladesh across the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta) is the world's largest mangrove forest and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and hosts the world's largest population of Royal Bengal tigers. Other important mangrove areas include the Mahanadi and Godavari-Krishna deltas of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh, the Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Khambhat in Gujarat, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the backwaters of Kerala (particularly Vembanad), the Chilika Lake area of Odisha, and the Pichavaram mangroves of Tamil Nadu (Bhitarkanika in Odisha is usually ranked the second largest in India). Mangrove species (Rhizophora, Avicennia, Sonneratia) are adapted to saline, waterlogged, anaerobic conditions through specialised root systems: prop roots (stilt roots) for structural support in unstable mud, pneumatophores (aerial breathing roots) that project above the mud surface to access oxygen. Mangroves are among the most productive and ecologically important ecosystems: they serve as nurseries for commercially important fish and shellfish species (most marine fisheries depend on mangrove-supported juvenile habitats), protect coastlines from storm surges and tsunami waves (acting as bio-shields), sequester carbon at rates far exceeding terrestrial forests (blue carbon), and support rich biodiversity including the Irrawaddy dolphin, saltwater crocodile, and Olive Ridley sea turtles. Mangroves are critically threatened by coastal development, aquaculture (shrimp farming), pollution, and sea level rise. The Conservation International, IUCN, and UNESCO's Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission launched the Blue Carbon Initiative to restore and sustainably manage mangroves, tidal marshes, and seagrasses, targeting SDG Goal 14.

Mountain (Montane) Forests

Mountain vegetation in India changes with altitude, following a pattern similar to latitudinal zonation from the equator to the poles. In the Himalayas, the vegetation zones from base to summit are: tropical deciduous forest (up to 1,000 m), subtropical pine forests of chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) between 1,000 and 2,000 m, temperate broadleaved forests of oak (Quercus), rhododendron, maple, and horse chestnut between 1,500 and 3,000 m, temperate coniferous forests of deodar (Cedrus deodara), blue pine, fir, and spruce between 2,500 and 3,500 m, subalpine scrub and meadows (bugyals in Uttarakhand) between 3,500 and 4,000 m, and alpine tundra and permanent snow and ice above 4,000 m. The Eastern Himalayas (Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim) are significantly wetter than the Western Himalayas, supporting much richer and more diverse forest cover, including tropical evergreen forests at lower elevations, with higher endemism in plants. The Western Ghats above 1,500 m (Nilgiris, Anamalais, Palnis) support shola forests (dense patches of subtropical evergreen forest in valleys and hollows) interspersed with montane grasslands (rolling grasslands on ridge tops), forming a unique and highly endemic ecosystem. The Nilgiri biosphere reserve hosts the Nilgiri tahr, lion-tailed macaque, and Nilgiri langur. The shola-grassland mosaic is highly threatened by invasive species (especially Lantana camara, Eupatorium, and wattle plantations) and hydropower development.

Biodiversity and Conservation

India has four globally recognised biodiversity hotspots: the Eastern Himalayas, the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, the Indo-Burma region (covering northeast India), and the Sundaland (including Andaman and Nicobar Islands). These hotspots are characterised by exceptional levels of plant endemism and severe habitat loss. India's forest cover as per the India State of Forest Report (ISFR 2023) is approximately 7,15,343 square kilometres, constituting 21.76 percent of the total geographical area. The target under the National Forest Policy (1988) is to maintain 33 percent of the land under forest cover. India has 106 national parks, 567 wildlife sanctuaries, 18 biosphere reserves (of which 13 are part of the UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves), and over 1,000 conservation reserves and community reserves. Project Tiger (1973) has increased tiger population from around 1,800 in 1973 to over 3,000 in recent estimates. Project Elephant (1992), Project Crocodile, and the Sea Turtle Project are other flagship species conservation programmes. Threats to biodiversity include deforestation (for agriculture, mining, industry, and infrastructure), invasive alien species, poaching and wildlife trade, climate change, and human-wildlife conflict in forest-fringe communities.

Coral Reefs of India

Coral reefs are ridges and platforms of calcium carbonate built by colonies of coral polyps that live in symbiosis with photosynthetic algae called zooxanthellae. Reef-building corals need warm, clear, shallow, well-lit sea water free of silt and fresh water, so in India they are confined to a few sheltered coasts and island groups. Reefs are among the most ancient and dynamic ecosystems of the country: corals and coralline algae build them up while waves, storms and boring organisms break them down, and the balance decides within a few decades whether a reef grows or dies.

India has four main reef regions.

• Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay: fringing and patch reefs round 21 small islands between Rameswaram and Thoothukudi, protected as the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park (1980), the core of India's first marine biosphere reserve (1989) and a home of the dugong. Coral mining for lime has already lowered one island, Vilanguchalli, below low-tide level.
• Gulf of Kachchh: fringing and patch reefs round islands such as Pirotan, protected as a marine sanctuary (1980) and Marine National Park (1982). They survive high salinity, wide temperature swings, heavy silt and a large tidal range.
• Lakshadweep: India's only atolls, 36 islands on 12 atolls, three reefs and five submerged banks, where the islands themselves are made of coral sand and rubble.
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands: mainly fringing reefs round several hundred islands, the most diverse in India, protected in part in the Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park at Wandoor.

Their importance follows from this dynamism. Reefs are highly productive in nutrient-poor tropical water because nutrients are recycled tightly between corals, algae and fish, so they serve as nurseries for the fish, lobsters and molluscs that sustain coastal fisheries. Lakshadweep's pole-and-line tuna fishery depends on live bait caught in its lagoons. Reefs are natural breakwaters that can absorb about 97 percent of incoming wave energy, protecting low islands, their thin lenses of fresh groundwater, and the beaches, seagrass beds and mangroves behind them. The sand they produce builds beaches and coral islands. They respond quickly to change, as when the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake lifted reefs out of the water in the northern Andamans and drowned others in the Nicobars. They also support diving tourism and are a source of new pharmaceutical compounds.

The same sensitivity makes them fragile. Mass bleaching during marine heatwaves, as in 1998, when reefs in Lakshadweep and the Andamans were severely damaged, and again in the fourth global bleaching event of 2023 to 2025, combines with silt from deforested catchments and dredging, sewage, destructive fishing, coral mining, careless tourism and sea-level rise. Reef-building corals are protected under Schedule I of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, and coral reefs are ecologically sensitive CRZ-I areas under the Coastal Regulation Zone notifications, where construction is barred. Because a stressed reef can shift from coral to algae within a few years, its condition is an early warning of the health of the whole coastal ecosystem.

Watershed Management for Soil and Water Conservation in Hill Areas

Hill areas combine the conditions for severe erosion: steep slopes, young and friable rocks such as the Shiwalik sandstones and conglomerates, thin soils, intense monsoon rain and cloudbursts, and heavy pressure from road building, grazing, fuelwood cutting and shortened jhum cycles. They also face a water paradox: rainfall is high but runs off quickly, and the springs on which most hill villages depend are drying as their recharge areas lose forest and soil, so conservation is as much about holding water as soil.

Deforestation in the upper reaches of a river magnifies erosion. Canopy and litter break the force of raindrops, roots bind soil and anchor slopes, and humus-rich forest soil soaks up rain. Once the cover goes, more rain runs off, sheet erosion, gullying and landslides increase, and the river carries more silt and sharper flood peaks, which raise riverbeds, fill reservoirs and worsen floods downstream. The Alaknanda is the classic North Indian example. In July 1970, after decades of commercial felling in its upper catchment, a landslide blocked the river and the resulting flood swept the valley from Hanumanchatti near Badrinath to Haridwar, 320 km downstream, washing away villages, bridges and roads. The disaster fed the Chipko movement, which reached Reni in 1974, and in 1980 the government imposed a fifteen-year ban on commercial felling in the Himalayan forests. The torrents (chos) of the Hoshiarpur Shiwaliks, which buried farmland in sand after nineteenth-century deforestation and led to the Punjab Land Preservation Act of 1900, show the same process.

Watershed management treats the whole catchment of a stream, from ridge to valley, as one planning unit, usually a micro-watershed of a few hundred hectares in the hills, and combines engineering, vegetative and social measures.

• Ridges and upper slopes: afforestation, contour and staggered trenches, closure of degraded land to grazing and fire, and pasture development, which raise infiltration where runoff begins.
• Middle slopes: bench terraces with stone risers, contour bunds, grass barriers, and agroforestry or orchards in place of annual crops on the steepest land.
• Drainage lines: gully plugs, loose-boulder and gabion check dams and small ponds that trap silt and slow the flow.
• Springs: springshed management, which maps the recharge zone of each spring from its geology and treats that area with pits and trenches, as in Sikkim's Dhara Vikas programme.

Traditional systems such as the kuhl channels of Kangra, the naula and dhara springs of Kumaon and the zabo system of Nagaland, which links a protected forest catchment, ponds and terraced rice, follow the same logic. Sukhomajri, in the Haryana Shiwaliks near Chandigarh, is the best-known modern case. From the mid-1970s scientists of the Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute traced the rapid silting of Chandigarh's Sukhna Lake to erosion in its catchment and built small earthen dams above the village. Villagers agreed to stop open grazing in return for shares of the stored water and of the grass, so vegetation returned, the silting of the lake fell and farm incomes rose.

National programmes moved from the National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas (1990-91) and the Integrated Watershed Management Programme (2009-10) to the Watershed Development Component of the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana. Under WDC-PMKSY 2.0, 1,150 projects covering about 50 lakh hectares were sanctioned in 2021-22, and 56 more followed in January 2025 in ten states including Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Nagaland. Hill watershed projects succeed where village institutions control grazing and share benefits fairly, and fail where contractors build structures that nobody maintains. Out-migration that leaves terraces unrepaired, and road and hydropower works that dump debris on slopes, can undo the gains, so conservation in the hills needs land-use regulation as well as watershed works.

Action Plan for Vulture Conservation 2020-2025

India has nine vulture species. The three resident Gyps vultures, the white-rumped, long-billed (Indian) and slender-billed vultures, once numbered in the tens of millions but collapsed by over 97 percent between the early 1990s and the 2000s, and all three are Critically Endangered. The cause was diclofenac, a painkiller given to cattle: vultures feeding on the carcasses of treated animals die of kidney failure. India banned veterinary diclofenac in 2006 and in 2015 restricted diclofenac for human use to single-dose vials of 3 ml to stop its diversion to cattle. Related drugs such as aceclofenac and ketoprofen are also toxic, nimesulide was banned for animal use in December 2024, and meloxicam and tolfenamic acid are the safe alternatives. The loss of these scavengers left carcasses to feral dogs and rats, with costs for rabies control and public health.

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change released the Action Plan for Vulture Conservation 2020-2025 in 2020, succeeding the first plan of 2006. It aims to end the veterinary use of diclofenac and other toxic drugs, with a mechanism for the Drugs Controller General of India to withdraw any veterinary drug found toxic to vultures, to expand conservation breeding, including programmes for the red-headed and Egyptian vultures, to set up Vulture Safe Zones and rescue centres, and to monitor wild populations.

Conservation breeding centres are central to the plan for four reasons.

• Insurance against extinction: wild numbers are too small to recover on their own while toxic drugs persist in carcasses, so captive flocks hold genetically managed populations safe from poisoning.
• Slow breeding: Gyps vultures begin to breed only at five or six years of age and a pair raises at most one chick a year, so recovery needs the protected and higher output of captive breeding with artificial incubation.
• Birds for release: the centres supply captive-bred vultures for release into Vulture Safe Zones, areas of roughly 100 km radius where toxic drugs have been removed from use and safe food is assured.
• Research and capacity: they build expertise in husbandry, veterinary care and drug safety and train staff from other institutions.

The Jatayu Conservation Breeding Centre at Pinjore in Haryana, set up in 2001 by the Haryana Forest Department and the Bombay Natural History Society, was Asia's first vulture breeding facility and began Asia's first vulture reintroduction programme in 2016. Other centres include Rajabhatkhawa in West Bengal, Rani in Assam and Kerwa near Bhopal, with zoo-based units at Hyderabad, Junagadh, Bhubaneswar and Ranchi. Breeding alone cannot save the species, however: releases succeed only where the drug ban is enforced across the whole area in which the birds forage.

The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 and Forest Conservation

The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 created a specialised court for environmental cases, giving effect to the right to a healthy environment that the Supreme Court has read into Article 21 and to India's commitment at the 1992 Rio Conference to provide judicial remedies for environmental harm. It followed the Law Commission's 186th Report (2003), which proposed environmental courts, and replaced the National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995, which was never made operational, and the National Environment Appellate Authority Act, 1997. The Tribunal began work in October 2010 with its principal bench in New Delhi and zonal benches at Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata and Chennai, and pairs judicial members with expert members from science, forestry and environmental administration.

• Jurisdiction (section 14): civil cases raising a substantial question relating to the environment under the seven laws in Schedule I, which include the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and the Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
• Appeals (section 16): against approvals for the diversion of forest land under section 2 of the Forest (Conservation) Act and against environmental clearances, which brings forest clearance decisions under independent review.
• Relief (section 15): compensation to victims and restitution of damaged property and environment.
• Principles (section 20): the Tribunal must apply sustainable development, the precautionary principle and the polluter pays principle.
• Speed: cases are to be decided within six months, with appeal to the Supreme Court within 90 days.

Its impact on forest conservation has been real but uneven. Forest-dwellers and civil society groups gained a cheaper and faster forum than the High Courts, and forest clearances now have to be reasoned. In 2014 the Tribunal set aside the forest clearance for the Parsa East and Kanta Basan coal blocks in the Hasdeo Arand forests of Chhattisgarh, which the Environment Ministry had granted against the advice of its own Forest Advisory Committee. In 2016 it suspended the environmental clearance of the Nyamjang Chhu hydroelectric project in Tawang because its effect on the wintering habitat of the black-necked crane had not been assessed. It has also ordered compensation and restoration for illegal felling and encroachment, and in 2021 the Supreme Court confirmed that it may act on its own motion.

Its limits are equally clear. The Indian Forest Act, 1927, the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, the Forest Rights Act, 2006 and state tree-protection laws lie outside Schedule I, so many forest and wildlife disputes cannot be brought before it. Vacancies have left benches idle at times, its orders can be stayed on appeal, and compliance depends on the same agencies it censures. The 2023 amendment that renamed the 1980 law the Van (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan) Adhiniyam also exempted categories of land, such as strategic and security projects within 100 km of the international borders and the Line of Actual Control, which narrows what can be challenged before the Tribunal.